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\begin{center}{\footnotesize to appear in: Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Astrophysics Research And Science Education at The Vatican
Observatory, June 14-21 1998, Castel Gandolfo, Italy, Ed. C. Impey}
\end{center}
\title{Astronomy Education and Research in Germany}
\author{Heino Falcke}
\affil{Max-Planck-Institut f\"ur Radioastronomie, Auf dem H\"ugel 69,
D-53121 Bonn, Germany\\ (hfalcke@mpifr-bonn.mpg.de)}
\begin{abstract}
I briefly summarize the state of Astronomy research and education in
Germany as I see it. In a world-wide comparison conditions are
excellent, however, specific problems remain. While Science and
Astronomy teaching is offered free to everyone (including foreigners)
at schools and universities, the quality and effectiveness of science
education could be improved. In the academic research and teaching
system a number of problems are currently discussed and proposals to
increase effectiveness and international competitiveness are being
made, like the evaluation of teaching and research, introduction of
more competition, and the reform of post doctoral career paths and the
tenure system.
\end{abstract}

\section{Introduction}
The International Symposium on Astrophysics Research And Science
Education sponsored by the Vatican Observatory in 1998 has seen a wide
variety of contributions from all parts of the world. In this respect
the situation of astronomy students, teachers, and scientists in
Germany is on the extreme end of the presented spectrum, if compared
to the situation in developing countries: Germany has a well developed
and well funded educational system, starting at the school level and
going up to the universities, which are freely accessible for everyone
(no student fees). Basic and applied research in all areas are equally
well funded and supported by the government and there is no general
debate questioning this support. Hence, all criticism, naturally
contained in such an article, has to be seen on this overall positive
background.

\section{Astronomy education in school and for the general public}
Germany has a highly differentiated school system with a large number
of different types of schools, too many to be described and covered in
detail here. Sciences like physics, chemistry, and biology are
basically taught at various levels in all schools. Usually, astronomy
is not a separate course but is included in the curriculum for other
subjects, especially physics.  There is, however, enough flexibility
that interested teachers can offer special interest groups, projects,
or even short-term courses which focus entirely on astronomy. This is,
of course, most effective if the teacher him/herself is an
enthusiastic amateur astronomer. Quite a number of schools also have
some basic astronomy equipment like telescopes and sometimes even
domes. Hence, if a student is interested in astronomy there is a good
chance he/she can get some basic education in school, on the other
hand, however, astronomy education is probably inconspicuous enough
that many students escape it without harm and without much knowledge.

This is reflected in the general public today, where one can sense a
certain interest in astronomical topics, but where one also finds a
lack of basic astronomical concepts.  Another consequence is a
generally poor science journalism in larger newspapers, headlines
like: ``First object outside Milky Way detected'' (in the 1990s, not
the 1920s!) or ``Black Hole swallows Milky Way - no danger for earth
yet'' are not uncommon. Unlike in the US where there are organizations
like NASA or the AAS, which sponsor actively public relation and
outreach efforts, the astronomical community in Germany as a whole is
very disorganized when it comes to educate the general public. At
least there are a number of individual institutions which sponsor
outreach activities themselves---for example the 100m radio telescope
in Effelsberg run by our institute is a favourite tourist
attraction---and a number of amateur astronomers associations which
run ``Volkssternwarten'' (people's observatories) that offer basic
information for the interested public.

\section{Astronomy education at Universities}
Quite a number of universities in Germany offer astronomy PhD
programs. Typically a student first graduates in physics (diploma)
with astronomy as a minor subject before her/she can go on as a
graduate student in astronomy. There is no specific degree for
astronomy. To obtain a physics diploma a student needs roughly 5-6
years, including a one year diploma thesis, while graduate school
usually only consists of writing a PhD thesis within 2-3 years in a
research group. This has the advantage of giving the student more
freedom and independence than in graduate programs which are burdened
with too many classes. Main centers of astronomical research can be
found in Munich, Heidelberg, Bonn, Berlin, G\"ottingen, Hamburg,
T\"ubingen, Bochum and other big universities. Special attention
should also be given to the universities in eastern Germany which had
to undergo serious changes after the unification. While their
international reputation may not be as high yet as those of
established Universities in western Germany, they may have a lot to
offer for new students because of their smaller sizes and renewed
structures. Another possibility for graduate students are
Max-Planck-Institutes which have a high reputation as research
institues but, unlike universities, have no teaching
duties. Nevertheless, all these institutes participate in teaching
activities at nearby universities and offer fellowships for
undergraduate and graduate research.

\section{Support for foreign students and research}
Within an international context, like this workshop, one needs to
briefly mention the possibilities open to foreign students in
Germany. There are in fact a number of programs for exchange and
funding of foreign students. The most important organization in this
respect probably is the DAAD (Deutscher Akademischer Auslandsdienst,
http://www.daad.de/ where one also can get a much more detailed
overview of the academic system in Germany than given here). All
German universities accept foreign students, but usually require
language knowledge and the student may spend the first year learning
German in special schools. Staying in Germany, of course, usually
requires a visa and funding---for living not student fees---has to be
assured in advance. One problem in transferring to a German university
is the transfer of degrees, diplomas, and credits obtained in another
country since our systems has some peculiarities. Many universities
have now started to experiment with international programs: Bonn
University, for example, has just started the ``Bonn International
Physics Program (BIPP)'' which allows international students to attend
lectures given in English. It is also possible to take exams in
English. PhD theses written in English have already been possible in
various places for quite a while. Moreover, a number of
Max-Planck-Institutes offer PhD and PostDoc positions for foreign
students.

\section{Problems of astronomy education and research}
In contrast to typical complaints elsewhere I do not believe that
funding is the major problem astronomy is facing in Germany but rather
believe that we are plagued by some serious structural problems. A
recent study published in Science (1998, v.281, p.49) revealed that
German science is at the bottom end of industrialized countries as far
as its effectiveness is concerned while the absolute level of spending
is quite good. Consequently, a large debate is currently raging aiming
at an overhaul of the German university and research system. In my
opinion the following problems need to be addressed:

\subsection{Lack of competition:} Unlike the US, German universities
need not compete with each other as far as money and students are
concerned. Since there is also no regular evaluation of teaching and
research (with consequences), mediocrity fares a good life. A
``mentality of excellence'' is often demanded, it seems, however, that
the concept of ``excellence'' in science is very vague in Germany and
often based on position rather than achievement. A self-esteem not
tested in competition can easily lead to an unbalanced view of one's
self---in both directions. In this respect it is quite interesting to
note that none of the directorships at astronomy-related
Max-Planck-Institutes---which by definition require a high degree of
excellence---given out in recent years, has been given to a candidate
from within Germany. Is seems as if German science does not even trust
itself very much. Most structure reform proposal therefore include the
call for increased evaluation of the quality of science and teaching.

\subsection{Teaching} My first experience with university teaching was
a mathematics course in a completely crowded lecture hall with several
hundred other students where I was informed---quite proudly by the
professor---that at the end of this course two third of the students
will have dropped out. Another physics professor functioning as a
first semester guide to students could not get tired of explaining to
students how incompetent they actually are. The first lesson to learn
at a German university for me was: take care of yourself, no one really
cares whether you are here or not. My impression of American
universities was quite different with students being treated as
customers rather than an annoying crowd. My diploma as well as my PhD
certificate were handed to me by the secretaries in a very unofficial
setting while graduation ceremonies, a show of appreciation after all,
are quite evolved in American universities (even though it sometimes
can happen that Kermit---the frog---is your keynote speaker). Of
course, there are excellent and caring teachers at German universities
as well, however, the system itself does not really encourage a
student-centered mentality. An easy way out would be to charge student
fees so that students become ``valuable''. However,
this would violate some of the basic principles of fairness and free
access for everyone, that we have (fortunately) adopted in
Germany. Thus, current ideas to reform teaching revolves around
systems which try to couple evaluation of the quality and
effectiveness of teaching to the basic funding of universities.

\subsection{Career perspectives} An important question for students
going into astronomy is the professional perspective offered to them
in industry, basic research, and teaching. In the first half of the
nineties German industry, due to a recession, was reluctant to hire
new qualified R\&D staff. In some cases the number of
applicants---university graduates and PhDs in physics and related
fields----reached 2000 for a single job offer! It seemed that the
industry showed a complete lack of appreciation of physicists as a
whole. The psychological impact of this situation on a whole
generation of young and prospective physicists was much stronger than
it is usually deduced from official unemployment statistics only. Due
to this uncertain job market the number of students starting in
physics has been reduced drastically within the last few years, down
to a third from its peak value. Hence, there is currently an
overabundance of PhD astronomers and PostDocs in Germany looking for
some of the rare long-term positions in astronomy, while one can
foresee a `supply'-problem of students in the very near future
(perhaps serving as an argument to cut even more jobs in university
teaching). Consequently career prospects for astronomers in Germany
seem to be less than optimal.

Another interesting side-effect of this recession was that the lack of
inflow of trained physicists (and astronomers of course) coincided
with the explosive growth of the Internet taking place mainly at the
universities. As one consequence development of Internet use in
Germany was and still is significantly delayed with respect to the
US. I see this as an example of a failed technology transfer caused by
ignorance and lack of appreciation of academic teaching and
research. Fortunately things have changed now and it seems that
physicists and even astronomers are in high demand now in the
industry.

The situation looks less positive for academic careers, where I see
the most serious structural problems at the PostDoc/Assistant
Professor level. It is commonly said that PostDocs and young
scientists are essential for the creativity and activity of every
institute and that they carry a lot of the burden of the actual
research done. Unfortunately the important phase between the PhD and
the full professor level has been completely neglected in Germany,
making it difficult for many young scientists to pursue an academic
career. There is an intense competition when it comes to fill vacant
full professorships in Germany, however, this usually happens at a
stage where scientists are already established and have reached a
certain age. On the other hand no such competition and related
opportunities really exist for PostDocs and I am not aware of a
functioning job market for PostDocs here. Sometimes it is very
difficult to find out where jobs are being offered, especially for
outsiders, since many jobs are not widely advertised at all because
the prospective candidate often has to be named already when the grant
application is written.  Moreover, the German equivalents to assistant
professorships have been misused, split and tormented in so many ways
over the last two decades that now very few of these positions, which
combine teaching and research duties, are actually left. Nevertheless,
a general prerequisite for becoming full professor in Germany is
teaching experience and a second exam and thesis (called
``Habilitation''), so the only chance to advance through this stage is
to teach for free and without any clear perspective or security. While
in other countries PostDocs are seen as an important asset for a
institute to vitalize research my feeling is that this big creative
potential is used relatively inefficient in Germany. A part of the
reason may be the very hierarchical system in the German academic
system which focusses very much on the top of the power pyramid---a top
which is often reached in a single step. It might be worthwhile, and
this has been proposed as well, to consider a more sophisticated
system that includes several steps up the ladder, including temporary
assignments of assistant and associate professorships which could
eventually evolve into tenured positions at various levels.

\section{Conclusion}
In summary one can probably safely say that the German academic system
is facing a number of changes over the next years. At least the
current discussion points in this direction. German science will need
to become more competitive on an international level, hierarchical
structures and thinking need to be de-emphazised, teaching will have to
concentrate more on the needs of those who are being taught (rather
complain about their shortcomings) to become more effective, and all
this should coincide with greater efforts to popularize scientific
results and to strengthen the reputation of an academic education in
general. Science education and research in astronomy and physical
sciences in General is good, however, it may not yet quite live up to
its fullest potential. In times of budget cuts we have to make sure
that every ``Deutsche Mark'' (and soon every ``Euro'') is well spend
and improvement never is possible without change.
\end{document}